• Table
  of Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• Index

5 : Grammar and Usage

• Grammar
• Introduction
• 5.1       Definition
• 5.2       Schools of thought
• 5.3       Parts of speech
• Nouns
• Definitions
• 5.4       Nouns
• 5.5       Common nouns
• 5.6       Proper nouns
• 5.7       Count nouns
• 5.8       Mass nouns
• Properties of Nouns
• 5.9       Four properties
• 5.10     Case
• 5.11     Gender
• 5.12     Number
• 5.13     Person
• Plurals
• 5.14     Dictionaries
• 5.15     Adding “s” or “es”
• 5.16     Nouns ending in “f” or “fe”
• 5.17     Nouns ending in “o”
• 5.18     Nouns ending in “y”
• 5.19     Compound nouns
• 5.20     Irregular plurals
• 5.21     Plural form with singular sense
• Case
• 5.22     Function
• 5.23     Subjects
• 5.24     Objects
• 5.25     Possessive case
• 5.26     Possessives of titles and names
• 5.27     Joint and separate possessives
• Agent and Recipient Nouns
• 5.28     Definitions and use
• Appositives
• 5.29     Definition and use
• Functional Variation
• 5.30     Nouns as adjectives
• 5.31     Nouns as verbs
• 5.32     Other functional shifts
• Formation of New Nouns
• 5.33     How new nouns are coined
• Pronouns
• Definition and Uses
• 5.34     Definition
• 5.35     Antecedents of pronouns
• 5.36     Pronouns without antecedents
• 5.37     Position in sentence
• 5.38     Sentence meaning
• Properties of Pronouns
• 5.39     Four properties
• 5.40     Number and antecedent
• 5.41     Exceptions regarding number
• 5.42     Pronoun with multiple antecedents
• 5.43     Antecedents of different genders
• Classes of Pronouns
• 5.44     Six classes
• Personal Pronouns
• 5.45     Form
• 5.46     Identification
• 5.47     Changes in form
• 5.48     Gender, number, and case
• 5.49     Expressing gender
• 5.50     Special rules
• 5.51     Special uses
• Possessive Pronouns
• 5.52     Uses and forms
• 5.53     Compound personal pronouns
• 5.54     Reflexive and intensive pronouns
• Demonstrative and Interrogative Pronouns
• 5.55     Demonstrative pronouns
• 5.56     Interrogative pronouns
• 5.57     Referent of interrogative pronouns
• Relative Pronouns
• 5.58     Definition
• 5.59     Antecedent
• 5.60     Omitted antecedent
• 5.61     Possessive forms
• 5.62     “Whose” and “of which”
• 5.63     Compound relative pronouns
• Other Types of Pronouns
• 5.64     Indefinite pronouns
• 5.65     Adjective pronouns
• Adjectives
• 5.66     Definition
• 5.67     Proper adjectives
• 5.68     Participial adjectives
• Articles as Limiting Adjectives
• 5.69     Definition of an article
• 5.70     Definite article
• 5.71     Indefinite article
• 5.72     Exceptions
• 5.73     Choosing “a” or “an”
• 5.74     Articles with coordinate nouns
• 5.75     Effect on meaning
• 5.76     Zero article
• 5.77     Omitted article
• 5.78     Article as pronoun substitute
• Dates as Adjectives
• 5.79     Use and punctuation
• Position of Adjectives
• 5.80     Basic rules
• 5.81     After possessive noun or pronoun
• 5.82     Adjective modifying pronoun
• 5.83     Predicate adjective
• 5.84     Dangling participle
• Degrees of Adjectives
• 5.85     Three degrees
• 5.86     Comparative forms
• 5.87     Superlative forms
• 5.88     Forming comparatives and superlatives
• Special Types of Adjectives
• 5.89     Past-participial adjectives
• 5.90     Uncomparable adjectives
• 5.91     Coordinate adjectives
• 5.92     Phrasal adjectives
• 5.93     Exceptions for hyphenating phrasal adjectives
• Functional Variation
• 5.94     Adjectives as nouns
• 5.95     Adjectives as verbs
• 5.96     Other parts of speech functioning as adjectives
• Verbs
• Definitions
• 5.97     Verbs
• 5.98     Transitive and intransitive verbs
• 5.99     Ergative verbs
• 5.100   Regular and irregular verbs
• 5.101   Linking verbs
• 5.102   Phrasal verbs
• 5.103   Principal and auxiliary verbs
• 5.104   Verb phrases
• Infinitives
• 5.105   Definition
• 5.106   Split infinitive
• 5.107   Uses of the infinitive
• Participles and Gerunds
• 5.108   Forming participles
• 5.109   Participial phrases
• 5.110   Gerunds
• Properties of Verbs
• 5.111   Five properties
• 5.112   Active and passive voice
• 5.113   Progressive conjugation and voice
• 5.114   Mood
• 5.115   Tenses
• 5.116   Present tense
• 5.117   Past tense
• 5.118   Future tense
• 5.119   Present perfect tense
• 5.120   Past perfect tense
• 5.121   Future perfect tense
• 5.122   Person
• 5.123   Number
• Conjugation of Verbs
• 5.124   Seven parts
• 5.125   Verb stem (present indicative)
• 5.126   Forming present participles
• 5.127   Present subjunctive
• 5.128   Past indicative
• 5.129   Forming past participles
• 5.130   Past subjunctive
• 5.131   Imperative
• Auxiliary Verbs
• 5.132   Definition
• 5.133   “Can”
• 5.134   “Do”
• 5.135   “Have”
• 5.136   “May”
• 5.137   “Must”
• 5.138   “Ought”
• 5.139   “Shall”
• 5.140   “Will”
• The Verb “To Be”
• 5.141   Forms
• 5.142   Conjugation
• Adverbs
• Definition and Formation
• 5.143   Definition
• 5.144   With suffixes
• 5.145   Without suffixes
• 5.146   Distinguished from adjectives
• Simple versus Compound Adverbs
• 5.147   Simple and flat adverbs
• 5.148   Phrasal and compound adverbs
• Adverbial Degrees
• 5.149   Three degrees
• 5.150   Comparative forms
• 5.151   Superlative forms
• 5.152   Irregular adverbs
• 5.153   Uncomparable adverbs
• 5.154   Intensifiers
• Position of Adverbs
• 5.155   Placement as affecting meaning
• 5.156   Modifying words other than verbs
• 5.157   Modifying intransitive verbs
• 5.158   Adverbs and linking verbs
• 5.159   Adverbs with past-participial adjectives
• 5.160   Adverb within verb phrase
• 5.161   Importance of placement
• Prepositions
• Definition and Types
• 5.162   Definition
• 5.163   Simple and compound
• 5.164   Participial prepositions
• 5.165   Phrasal prepositions
• Prepositional Phrases
• 5.166   Definition
• 5.167   Placement
• 5.168   Refinements on placement
• 5.169   Ending a sentence with a preposition
• 5.170   Clashing prepositions
• 5.171   Elliptical phrases
• Other Prepositional Issues
• 5.172   Functional variation
• 5.173   Use and misuse of “like”
• Limiting Prepositional Phrases
• 5.174   Avoiding overuse
• 5.175   Cutting prepositional phrases
• 5.176   Cutting unnecessary prepositions
• 5.177   Replacing with adverbs
• 5.178   Replacing with possessives
• 5.179   Using active voice
• Conjunctions
• 5.180   Definition and types
• 5.181   Coordinating conjunctions
• 5.182   Correlative conjunctions
• 5.183   Copulative conjunctions
• 5.184   Adversative conjunctions
• 5.185   Disjunctive conjunctions
• 5.186   Final conjunctions
• 5.187   Subordinating conjunctions
• 5.188   Special uses of subordinating conjunctions
• 5.189   Relative pronouns and interrogative adverbs as conjunctions
• 5.190   “With” used loosely as a conjunction
• 5.191   Beginning a sentence with a conjunction
• Interjections
• 5.192   Definition
• 5.193   Usage
• 5.194   Functional variation
• 5.195   Words that are exclusively interjections
• 5.196   Punctuating interjections
• 5.197   “Oh” and “O”
• Word Usage
• Introduction
• 5.198   Grammar versus usage
• 5.199   Standard Written English
• 5.200   Dialect
• 5.201   Focus on tradition
• Glossary of Troublesome Expressions
• 5.202   Good usage versus common usage
• Bias-Free Language
• 5.203   Maintaining credibility
• 5.204   Gender bias
• 5.205   Other biases
• 5.206   Editor’s responsibility
• Prepositional Idioms
• 5.207   Idiomatic uses
• 5.208   Shifts in idiom
• 5.209   List of words and prepositions